Following seminars delivered in Gippsland, Melbourne and Adelaide, respectively, I was approached by some fanciers interested in grains/seeds and their levels of nutrients. It occurred to me then that it might be useful for Aussie fanciers to have nutritional information on grains/seeds in the form of a table, along with a number of points of discussion, to which they could refer at their convenience. For that reason, I have prepared the attached table of common feeds that fanciers might use in the preparation of rations for breeding, rearing and racing. (For greater detail on some of the topics covered here, eg, muscle, fuel and flight, etc., see other articles published in the ARPJ during this year, and previously.)
In this table, I have listed only values for Protein, Fat, Carbohydrates and Fibre. These values have been taken from Feedstuffs magazine, 1996 edition, and from an older edition of Feeds and Feeding by Morrison. These values are based on North American-grown feeds, and represent averages only, meaning that some grains could have both higher and lower values for the nutrients presented. For one example, I am aware that some varieties of wheat analysed in Canada have had up to 18% protein. I suspect that similar ranges of values for the given feeds could be found in Australia-grown feeds as well. If you want to be completely sure about the nutritional content of your feeds, you can have samples analysed commercially for a fee.
Briefly, proteins are used in the building and repair of tissues in the body, and so are useful in preparing birds for the breeding season, for improved fertility and hatchability, and for improved growth and development of youngsters. For example, studies in the USA have shown that a ration of 18% protein, but no higher, resulted in marked improvements in all of the situations just mentioned. No further improvement was found when diets containing higher than 18% protein were fed, so it seems that diets containing upwards of 18% protein are ideal for breeding and rearing.
Carbohydrates are the simple and complex sugars in feeds, and along with fats, represent the energy components of the diet, which allow the body to perform work of any kind. Carbohydrates - and particularly fats - are important for our purposes as racing pigeon fanciers because they are the fuels that supply the energy for our birds to exercise around the loft, and to fly from both the shortest toss and the longest race. One of the important carbohydrates for many birds and animals, including humans, is the sugar glucose, sometimes also called dextrose.
In grains/seeds, the starch component (visible to the naked eye when a grain such as maize is cracked open) is comprised of many units of glucose linked together in a particular large chemical configuration. After grains are ground in the gizzard, and the resulting mash is passed into the intestines, the starch is broken down (metabolised) into individual units of glucose which are then absorbed across the wall of the intestine into the blood stream and delivered to the liver. Here, many units of glucose are assembled into a large chemical structure that is different from that of starch, and is known as glycogen. (Hence, it becomes clear that starch is the storage form of glucose in plants and their seeds, and glycogen is the storage form of glucose in the tissues of birds and animals.)
When glucose is needed by tissues in the body, glycogen in the liver is broken down to individual units of glucose which are then exported in the blood stream to these tissues. For example, the chief fuel of the brain is glucose, a steady supply of which must be provided by the liver - which is why birds normally have a high blood level of glucose.
Both red and white muscle in the breast of pigeons must have a ready supply of glucose, many units of which are built up into glycogen for storage in the muscle, and for later use. During the explosive launch phase of flight, or during dodging bursts of energy during cruising flight, white muscle fibres in the breast utilise only glycogen as a source of energy for these actions. As a result, the glycogen supplies in white muscle are completely depleted very quickly (within the first 10 minutes or so after launch), and must be replenished to take care of other dodging emergencies that could occur during cruising flight. To replenish glycogen supplies in the muscle, the liver then begins to break down its supplies of glycogen to glucose, which is released to the blood stream and is transported to the white fibres in the breast muscles where it is again built up into glycogen, to be used as needed during emergencies in flight.
The other highly important role for glucose in pigeons is in the production of fat for sustained flight. Fat is unquestionably the key fuel for any flight lasting more than a few minutes, from a short training toss to a 500 mile race, and on to the marathons of 600 miles and more. You may recall a US study in which one group of pigeons was supplemented with 5% fat, and a second group was not supplemented. In races up to 200 miles, there wasn't much difference in the performances of the two groups. However, after 200 miles, birds in the fat-supplemented group definitely had better performances than those in the unsupplemented group. Once clocking began, there were more birds clocked from the fat-supplemented group in a given period of time than from the unsupplemented group. These findings demonstrated the marked benefits of fat in providing birds with the improved stamina and endurance needed to complete these races.
It is known that the liver of pigeons produces almost 50% of the fat for use in the body, and that it regulates fat production in the body. (Of course, fat for use in the body is also derived directly from the diet.) One study in the USA several years ago showed that when glucose was injected intravenously into hungry young pigeons, there was rapid conversion of this glucose into fatty acids in the liver within three minutes, a fact that indicates an amazingly rapid ability of the liver to produce fat from glucose!
The source of the glucose for conversion to fat in the diet is primarily the starch component of grains and seeds, and can also be supplied as glucose powder(or fructose, another important sugar in birds) added to drinking water. Fat is stored in the liver but it is also exported from the liver in the form of fatty acids through the blood stream to storage depots in the body cavity among the intestines. Some of the fatty acids are also exported to the breast muscles and stored in the red muscle fibres where they are ready to be used as the key source of energy for prolonged, rapid flight.
Now, in birds in general, it has been found that 1) high levels of fat in the diet will reduce the amount of fat the liver is capable of producing, 2) that high levels of protein in the diet will also reduce the amount of fat the liver can produce, and 3) that high levels of carbohydrate in the diet will increase the amount of fat the liver can produce. On the basis of these facts it seems obvious to me firstly, that in preparation for a race, high protein grains like peas should be fed at a reduced level, and secondly, that high fat grains should be fed in moderation, and thirdly, that when high fat grains are used at all, there should also be a lot of high carbohydrate grains fed as well.
Strictly speaking, the fibre component of a grain is classified under carbohydrate, but is often listed separately in nutritional tables. Fibre in a ration is important because of its ability to absorb intestinal components that could be harmful to the system, but in large amounts, it can interfere with digestion of other nutritional components of the ration. For this reason, it is often suggested that the fibre component of a ration for livestock be no greater than 5%.
In Table 1, you will note that I have included odd items such as cheese, simply because one Aussie fancier I know, as well as some European fanciers, feed it, and the birds seem to enjoy it! Fish meal is included as well because of its high level of top quality protein and because in some cases, it may be included in pelleted feeds for livestock, although it is expensive. Brewer's yeast is mentioned because some fanciers use it on their feed mix, along with lemon juice, at feeding time. Milk powder, both whole and skim, along with ingredients such as rolled oats from the kitchen, are mentioned because some fanciers include a number of these and other ingredients into a cake that they bake in the oven or dry in the sun, and later feed to the birds (for one example, see the book "Fifty Years Aloft" by Bill Verco).
Malt sprouts, and by extension, other sprouted grains, are high in protein and some vitamins at the time of sprouting, and once they get used to them, birds relish them and will eat them avidly. Peeled oats are the same as oat groats. Soybeans can be fed to pigeons as well as to other classes of livestock as long as they are cooked first. Don't feed raw soybeans to any livestock, including pigeons, because of the anti-nutritive substances they contain. Cooking destroys these substances and renders these beans suitable for feeding.
Whey powder is listed for information purposes, because it is high in lactose, a sugar that is a source of nutrient for "friendly" bacteria that are added to drinking water or feed in plain yogurt or commercially available probiotics. These bacteria use the lactose as a source of energy in their production of lactic acid. In turn, the lactic acid helps to acidify intestinal contents and to create a hostile environment for unfriendly bacteria such as paratyphoid organisms or disease-producing strains of E. coli, among others.
Fanciers will note that under the columns listed as Protein, Fat, Carbohydrate and Fibre, certain values are high-lighted. In all cases, the high-lighted values indicate feeds that are high, or relatively so, in that particular component of the ration. For example, feeds that are high in protein include beans, brewer's yeast, canola, etc., and so on down the list; those high in fat include canola, cheese, fish meal, etc.; those high in carbohydrate include barley, cheese, kafir, maize, rice, etc.; those high in fibre include whole barley, buckwheat, canola, malt sprouts, etc.. High fibre feeds are mentioned because, as noted earlier, while it is useful in the digestive tract, when it is present in high amounts, fibre can interfere with the digestion of some nutrients.
The carbohydrate value of maize is listed in the range of 64-70.9%. In my experience, the most common average value is actually closer to 70% for most maize - hence, like other grains with similarly high values of carbohydrates (like rice), it has great value in preparing birds for racing, regardless of the distance.
Some fanciers will have noted that maple peas are missing from the table. Reason: the protein content of maple peas is similar to that of other peas and beans, and likely Dun peas as well, at about 23%, and are included in that over all value. As well, maple peas, like soybeans, are very high in substances that interfere with the digestion of protein. Let me explain. The pancreas, located in the first loop of intestine after the gizzard, secretes into the intestine, a digestive enzyme known as trypsin, which is important in that it splits proteins into their constituent amino acids. Maple peas contain high levels of substances that interfere with the activity of trypsin, which in turn, prevents the proper digestion of proteins in the diet. For this reason, it seems advisable to reduce the per centage of maple peas in a ration to 5-10%, to reduce the effects of this anti-trypsin activity.
SUGGESTED RATIONS
The composition of the rations given in this section aren't written in stone, but are suggestions ONLY, and can be modified according to the experience of the fancier, and to the availability of supplies of grains, their cost, etc..
In all situations, 365 days a year, there is a basic need for an insoluble granite grit for grinding grains in the gizzard, plus oyster shell, or calcium rock chips as a source of calcium, in addition to a wide-ranging loose mineral mix containing salt (to encourage birds to eat the mineral), and once or twice a week, a multivitamin mix in the drinking water.
Rations for Breeding and Rearing and Moulting
Three to four weeks ahead of pairing birds, increase the percentage of legumes (peas, beans, lentils, etc., plus a high-protein pellet (18-28% protein) which also contains a broad range of vitamins and minerals. A non-medicated pellet, such as an 18% protein finisher pellet prepared for broiler chickens, or a 28% protein turkey pellet are examples of useful pellets. Aim for a final protein level of 17-18% which is ideal for fertility, hatchability, growth and development of youngsters.
The reason for the 3-4 week interval before pairing the birds is to ensure that the systems of both sexes are well fortified with all of the nutrients that are important for high fertility, etc., as just mentioned. Too often in my experience, in the breeding season, fanciers don't change from a relatively bland off-season diet to one higher in a range of important nutrients until after the eggs are laid. One problem with this can be clear eggs, or at hatching, weak or dead-in-shell youngsters. To avoid this situation, improve the diet ahead of the breeding season, much as sheep breeders do when they "flush" their breeding animals by putting them on a higher plane of nutrition, ie, higher levels of protein, plus vitamins and minerals ahead of the breeding season. (Note that black eggs, dead-in-shell or weak youngsters can be the result of bacterial infections in the egg. If this is a persistent problem, be sure to take some of these eggs or youngsters to your veterinarian for bacterial culture.)
One suggested breeding ration that will provide between 17-18% protein:
30-35% peas [(green, white or yellow peas, Dunn peas, or combinations of these), but only 5% maple peas which contain high levels of substances that interfere with the digestion of protein]. Peanuts, sunflower seeds, etc. for their high protein and fat content can be included here as well.
15% livestock/poultry pellets (18-28% protein)
20-25% wheat
25-30% maize
10% safflower
Other grains/seeds can be added as you see fit - rice, millet, milo, dari, flax, etc.. Obviously, the total per centage of all grains used must be 100.
Because young birds continue to grow and develop for many months, I believe that they should be maintained on the ration they were reared on, or on one similar to it. As they begin to train and race, they can have more grains high in carbohydrate and fat for the energy they provide.
Similarly, I believe that next year's races are won, in part, during the current moult in which nutritional demands are very high to complete the annual change of feathers. For this reason, the diet should be one that supports the high demand for the quality protein needed for the growth of quality feathering. Proteins are comprised of smaller units called amino acids, of which there are some 22. Those containing sulphur, especially methionine, are key to good development and growth of feathers. Melvyn John of Vydex Animal Health Ltd has written a very good short article in the BHW weekly for October 6, 2000, and in it, he explains the need for high quality protein during the moult. He feels that ordinary grains in pigeon rations will not supply enough of the much needed methionine, and so recommends supplementation on a daily basis. Commercially available amino acid solutions can help, but also, supplements containing fish meal, for example, in pelleted feeds, can be useful here. Mr John also recommends vitamin (especially vitamin C) and mineral supplementation during the moult.
Racing Mixes - Old Birds and Young Birds
"Light" Mix- often used in widowhood racing
Light mixes are said to be easily digestible (whatever that means), and allow the digestive system to rest after the stresses and strains of the previous weekend's race. After a few days on these light rations, birds (especially widowers) can be shifted gradually to a Heavy Mix (see examples) in preparation for the next race. A Light mix with a change to a Heavy mix can also be useful for birds on the natural system, or those on a celibacy system, a common system in Australia, I understand. Some examples of a Light Mix:
100% barley, or
50% (or more) barley and the balance composed of a mix of equal parts rice, wheat, small seeds and safflower, fed as birds return from races and early in the week, after which there is a gradual shift to the Heavy Mix by shipping day. Other examples follow.
"Heavy" Mix
Heavy mixes are those that contain more protein than the Light mixes, and definitely more carbohydrates for the production of fat. For longer races, the addition of some high-fat grains and seeds to the Heavy mix toward shipping day seems to make sense. One example of a Heavy mix:
20-25% peas
40-45% maize
25-30% wheat
5-10% livestock/poultry pellets (18-28% protein)
5-10% safflower.
Because of their high percentage of fats, grains such as peanuts, sunflower seeds, etc., can be added as sources of fat as shipping day approaches, especially for long races, including endurance races. If these high-fat, high-protein grains are added to the ration, be sure that there are also lots of high-carbohydrate grains present as well - such as wheat, maize, rice, oats, etc.. High-fat, high-protein grains can interfere with fat production by the liver, but if a lot of high-carbohydrate grains are fed at the same time, interference with fat production by the liver doesn't seem to be a problem. Some fanciers will feed 80-100% maize plus some peanuts or sunflower seeds on the last two days before shipping to a long race.
Other Widowhood Diets - Suggestions:
British Widowhood Racing Mix
Racing mix: equal parts maple peas, tares, wheat, milo, white dari, safflower, buckwheat, rice, oat groats. The daily schedule begins on Sunday on the assumption that the birds raced the day before (Saturday).
Daily schedule:
Sunday AM: barley
Sunday PM: 60% barley, 40% racing mix
Monday AM: 40% barley, 60% racing mix
Monday PM: 20% barley, 80% racing mix
Tuesday AM: 100% racing mix
Tuesday PM: 70% racing mix, 30% maize and rice
Wednesday AM: 25% racing mix, 75% maize, rice and hemp
Wednesday PM: 10% racing mix, 90% maize, rice and hemp
Thursday - Evening - 100 % widowhood mix. No barley.
Friday - morning (shipping day) - plenty of widowhood mix in their pots. Remove all feed at 1:00 PM.
Belgian Racing Mix
Light mix (sometimes called a diet mix) -- 20% barley, 10% white dari (kafir), 10% safflower, 5% rice, 8% paddy rice, 5% buckwheat, 7% red dari, 15% wheat, 5% peeled oats, 3% millet, 3% rapeseed (now called canola in some areas), 6% flax, 3% hemp.
Heavy Mix -- 35% maize, 12% wheat, 32% peas, 10% white dari, 4% safflower, 5% tares, 2% catjang mango (anyone know what this is??)
For an upcoming race of 350 miles:
Sunday: 80% light mix, 20% heavy mix
Monday: 60% diet mix, 40% heavy mix
Tuesday: 40% diet mix, 60% heavy mix
Wednesday and Thursday: 100% heavy mix
For short races, feed diet mixes more often and heavy mixes less often. For short races, one fancier feeds only the diet mix, with the heavy mix fed the day before basketing. For long races, little or no diet mix is given.
It is important to realise that the foregoing examples are just that, and can be modified at will. Be aware that you can substitute one grain in a category for another. For instance, if your favourite yellow or white pea isn't available, substitute with available green peas; if you are short of maize, substitute with rice, popcorn and wheat, etc.. It is also important to understand that the racing rations presented are high in carbohydrates which the liver converts very readily to the fats needed for any sustained flight, whether it is a short training toss or a marathon 500-600-700 mile flight or greater.
For these longer races, it might be a good idea to supplement these high carbohydrate diets with some high fat grains/seeds such as peanuts or sunflower seeds in the last 2-3 days before shipping to add a bit more fat to the reserves. Because itis known that glucose can be converted readily to fat, you can add glucose powder (say, 2 teaspoons per litre) to your drinkers for a day or two, say Tuesday and Wednesday morning (fresh water Wednesday evening) if you are shipping Thursday night. You can also use another sugar - fructose - in the drinking water instead of glucose, because there is a high biological priority in birds to direct fructose to fat production. Honey (about 30% glucose, 40% fructose) could be used instead of either of the sugars mentioned - both sugars and honey are also a good pick-me-up for the birds when they return from a race.
These sugars should be used only for a day or two at a time, because some bacteria, etc. find them useful as well in their own life processes. If some of these bacteria are dangerous types, such as the paratyphoid organism or some strains of E. coli, you don't want to be aiding their growth by overusing these sugars. It's the same with vitamins - use them in drinking water for only a day or two at a time, for the same reasons.
It is also evident that the level of peas in rations for racing is reduced, but not eliminated. Peas and other high- protein grains are reduced in amount and are replaced by greater reliance on grains high in carbohydrates for the racing energy they contain. I realise that for some Aussie fanciers, this talk is heresy, but I will plunge on regardless, undeterred. Peas are just not an energy feed but as noted, their protein is important for the repair of damaged or degenerated muscle or other tissues. Some damage or degeneration may occur during any race, but logically seems more likely if a race is tough and birds are forced to work extra hard, so some protein should be present in the diet.
In addition, we have seen that high levels of protein in a ration will decrease the amount of fat the liver is able to produce. Why in the world would we want to decrease fat production ahead of any race, since it is the chief fuel for sustained, rapid flight? In another example closer to home, why would we want to put kerosene instead of petrol or LPG in the fuel tanks of our cars?? We don't want to do this, but we do want to provide the best available fuel - petrol or LPG. The emphasis in preparing birds for racing should be a decreased reliance on peas, beans, etc., but a much increased reliance on the high-carbohydrate grains (and at some stage, depending on the distance for which we are preparing birds, an increase in some of the high-fat grains for a few days). Some protein also appears to be necessary as a source of uric acid which, it seems, may be useful in preventing or reducing the effects of hyperthermia (over heating) during races, especially those flown in very hot weather.
Fanciers have asked about the amounts to be fed per bird during the race season. It seems that in birds, hand feeding a given amount each day results in a greater production of fat for fuel than does open hopper feeding. For the shorter races, somewhere in the area of 1 ounce per bird per day seems adequate. As the distances get beyond 250 miles, perhaps 1 1/4 ounces per day, and beyond 300-350 miles, 1 1/2 ounces per day. On some days, birds will need a bit more if they appear extra hungry for some reason, and on other days, they may need a bit less, but it is still a judgment call.
In all cases, birds should remain buoyant and light in the hand, and as form approaches, they should balloon out to appear larger in the hand, but continuing to be as light as feathers. Wattles should be sharply white, or even pink as circulation improves with improving condition, the eyes should sparkle like diamonds, feathers should be tight and smooth, the breast muscles pink, and the skin clear and free of scales, with tiny blood vessels crossing the keel.
During the last week before shipping, it is the philosophy of some successful fanciers that toward shipping day, especially for the longer races, the amount of heavy exercise/training should decrease, and the amount of feed should correspondingly increase. This seems to make a lot of sense. Why build up fat reserves for the race, especially a long race, if you are just going to burn it all off by training heavily during the few days before shipping, thereby alternately building fuel reserves (fats) on one hand, and then burning them off through excessive work, on the other hand?? It's something to think about. It would be like fuelling the car for a long trip, only to use most of that fuel by driving around town at high speed, before leaving on that long trip. Result: the tank is empty or low in fuel, and more fuel is now needed to handle that long trip.
I understand that some of the best known Aussie fanciers, past and present, have the idea that any amount of fat is a hindrance, and that it is important to strip the birds right down to eliminate this unwanted fat, (to be replaced with what, I would ask???) I continue to wonder what they believe the birds use for fuel in the first place. True, excessive fat is a definite hindrance, but as fat is certainly the fuel on which birds race from short to long distance, this idea of stripping birds right down in weight is completely unwarranted, and not in keeping with the established facts about fuel requirements. I believe that birds for the shorter races need to be somewhat lighter in weight than those for the longer races, but the point is that all of them use fat as the fuel on which to race any distance.
Another point: I think it is important not to ship birds to a race with a full crop of feed. If we have been feeding the birds correctly up to shipping day, by that time they should be well prepared, so it's really not necessary to pack them with feed late in the afternoon of shipping day. Loading the birds with feed simply invites unwanted thirst, and if they don't know how to drink in the transporter, or if water isn't provided (as it definitely should be!!), birds will suffer unnecessarily. As well, it has been found that birds kept off feed for up to 72 hours load their breast muscles with fat, so if they don't get a good feed late on shipping day, there should be no further worry about them.
A few more points - birds should be fed in the transporter in the late afternoon of the day before release, and the feeders removed before nightfall.Definitely they should not be fed on the morning of release, again because of the problem with unnecessary thirst during the race. The birds should be watered the night before and on the morning of release, without fail. (Fanciers also need to teach their youngsters how to drink in the transport truck - see the previous article, "Pigeons, Fuel and Racing: Other Practical Aspects", published in the ARPJ, for a good method for teaching them to drink.)
It's likely a contentious point, but the amount and kind of feed to provide in the transport truck is also important. Birds likely don't need more feed than about 1/2 to 1 ounce (maximum) per bird the night before release. For a holdover, likely 1 ounce per bird per day is enough - remember, these birds should have been well prepared nutritionally well before they were shipped!
Based on the facts, the grains to be fed in the transport truck should be the cereal grains only - maize, wheat, rice, etc.. In many cases, the main feed given is straight maize, which is just fine. The birds need the energy grains just mentioned, but not peas. (They likely won't eat them anyway, as long as they have the choice of cereal grains, the most desirable feed.) As mentioned a number of times now, peas are not an energy feed, and the birds need energy for the race ahead - hence the value of the cereal grains, especially maize, to help accomplish this.
I am also aware that the subject of feeding large amounts of peas to pigeons is an article of faith to a number of Aussie fanciers, but information on the role of grains high in carbohydrates in racing, as presented here, is based on scientific fact, and is the truth. I am well aware that tradition and traditional views die hard. As I mentioned to an Adelaide fancier who issued a friendly challenge during my seminar there, it was not my wish to tell fanciers what to do, but that I merely wanted to present facts that thinking fanciers could accept or reject as they pleased.
In closing this article, it is my sincere hope that the facts (and the opinions I have formed and expressed as an outgrowth of these facts) presented here and in other articles surrounding this whole subject of racing and fuel, will be a means of shedding light on the subject rather than creating heat. Further, it is also my hope that all of this published material will allow the thinking fancier to approach the feeding of breeding and racing pigeons from a factual, practical and scientifically sound point of view.
As my Email address is given under the title of this article, fanciers who have questions can contact me as they wish. Good wishes and good flying to all!
TABLE 1. Analyses (all figures in per cent)
Grains/seeds
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrate
Fibre
Barley
10-11
1.9
60-71
6.3
Beans (over all)
21-23
1.0-1.4
57-59
3.4-4.2
Brewer's yeast
45
0.4-1
32
3.7
Buckwheat
11
2.5
63
12.7
Canola (rapeseed)
20.4
43.6
15.7
6.6
Cheese
59.5
9.0
66.4
0.4
Fish meal
61-72
5.6-12.8
4.0
0.6
Flax (linseed)
24
35.9
24
6.3
Kafir (sorghum)
11.8
2.9
72.7
2.0
Maize (over all)
7.9
3.5
64-70.9
2.9
Malt sprouts
26.8
1.3
44.3
14.2
Milk, whole, dry
2-5.5
26.7
4.2-5.9
0.0
Milk, skim, dry
34.7
1.2
50.3
0.2
Millet
10.6-11.9
3.4-4.9
54.7-63.7
8.1-14.6
Milo
11.3
2.9
71.3
2.2
Oats, peeled
16
6.0
65.7
2.6
Oats, (oatmeal)
16
5.5
64.2
2.7
Oats, whole
15.4
4.2
65.7
11.0
Peas (over all)
23-25
1.2-2.5
52-57
5.7-7.1
Peanuts
30.4
47.7
11.7
2.
Popcorn
11.5
5.0
70.1
1.9
Rice, brown
9.1
2.0
74.5
1.1
Rice, polished
7.4
0.4
79.1
0.4
Rye grain
12.6
1.7
70.9
2.4
Safflower
16.3
29.8
17.5
26.6
Sorghum - see Kafir
Soybeans-cooked
38
18
24.5
5.0
Sunflower seed
27.7
41.4
16.3
6.3
Vetch
29.6
0.8
51.5
5.7
Wheat (over all)
13
1.9
70
2.6
Whey, dry
12.2
0.8
70.4
0.2
Brief Summary of Table 1:
1. Examples of grains and concentrates high in protein:
Peas, beans, lentils, fish meal, peanuts, etc..
2. Examples of grains high in fat (and often, protein as well):
Grains
